प्रतापगडाची लढाई

प्रतापगडाची लढाई ही महाराष्ट्राच्या इतिहासातील एक महत्वाची लढाई आहे. प्रतापगडाची लढाई ही महाराष्ट्राच्या इतिहासातील सर्वात रोमांचक क्षण मानला जातो. शिवाजी महाराजांनी अफजलखानाच्या रुपात आलेले स्वराज्यावरील संकट अफजलखानाचा वध करून तसेच त्याच्या सैन्याचा दणदणीत पराभव करून परतवून लावले.

पार्श्वभूमी

शिवाजींनी पुण्याजवळील मावळ प्रातांत नियंत्रण मिळवले होते. त्या वेळेस हा भाग अदिलशाहीच्या अखत्यारीत येत होता त्यामुळे त्यांच्या दृष्टीने शिवाजीचा बंदोबस्त करणे आवश्यक होते. विजापूरच्या दरबारात शिवाजींचा बंदोबस्त करण्याची मोहिम अफजलखानाकडे देण्यात आली. अफजलखानाने यापूर्वी शिवाजींचे थोरले बंधु संभाजी यांची हत्या केली होती तसेच आदिलशाही दरबारात त्याचे व शिवाजींचे वडील शहाजी यांचेही वैर होते. अफजलखान मोठा फौजफाटा घेउन विजापूरहून जून १६५९ मध्ये निघाला. वाटेत येताना इस्लामच्या प्रथे प्रमाणे तो देवळे पाडत व मुर्तीभंजन करत आला. तसेच खानाचा विजय व्हावा म्हणून वाईच्या ब्राम्हणांनी खानाकडून दक्षिणा घेउन मोठा होमयाग केला. शिवाजींनी खान येत आहे सुद्धा बातमी ऐकल्यावर आपला मुक्काम राजगडावरून घनदाट जंगलातील आणखी दुर्गम असलेल्या प्रतापगड येथे हलवला. अफजलखानाने तुळजापूर च्या भवानी मंदीराचा उध्वंस केला व आपली नजर पंढरपूर च्या विठ्ठ्ल मंदीरावर वळवली. खानाचा असा अंदाज होता की मंदीरे अश्या प्रकारे उधव्स्त केली तर शिवाजी चिडून उघड्यावर येउन युद्ध करतील परंतु शिवाजी महाराजांनी अजूनच बचावाचा पावित्रा घेतला. खानाने आपला मुक्काम वाई येथे टाकला. तो पूर्वी वाईचा सुभेदार असल्याने त्याला त्या भागाची चांगली माहिती होती.

सैन्यबळ

अफजलखानाच्य सैन्यात अनेक स्रदारांचा समावेश होता. त्यातील काही प्रमुख सय्यद बंडा, फाजलखान, अंबरखान, याकुतखान, सिद्दी हिलाल, मुसाखान तसेच काही मराठे सरदार पिलाजी मोहिते, प्रतापराव मोरे इत्यादी जे आदिलशाहीत चाकरीला होते. त्याच्या फौजेत १२,००० च्या घोडदळाचा समावेश होता तसेच १०,००० पायदळ तसेच १,५०० बंदूकधारी सैनिक, ८५ हत्ती व १,२०० ऊंटांचा समावेश होता. तसेच ८० ते ९० तोफा होत्या. अफजलखानाने जंजिर्‍याच्या सिद्दीशी हातमि़ळ्वणी करून कोकणच्या बाजूनेही आपले पाश आवळले.

शिवाजी-अफजलखान भेट व व्दंद

शिवाजींनी आपले दूत पाठवून खानाला आपण घाबरलो असल्याचे दाखवले व आपल्याला खानाशी युद्ध करायचे नाही व समझोत्यास तयार आहोत हे कळवले. खानाने प्रथम वाईस बोलवणे धाडले, पण शिवाजींनी नकार दिला. दोन्ही बाजूंकडून घातपाताची शक्यता होती. परंतु शिवाजींनी आपण खूपच घाबरलो असल्याचे खानाला दाखवले व खान प्रतापगडाच्या पायथ्याशी भेटायला तयार झाला. भेटी दरम्यान दोन्ही पक्ष कोणतेही हत्यार वापरणार नाही असे ठरले. प्रत्येक पक्षाचे १० अंगरक्षक असतील व त्यातील एकजण शामियान्या बाहेर थांबेल. व इतर अंगरक्षक दूर रहातील असे ठरले. भेटीची वेळ नोव्हेंबर १० इ.स. १६५९ रोजी ठरली.
भेटीच्या दिवशी अफजलखान भेटीच्या वेळेआधीच शामियान्यात आला. शिवाजींनी जाणून बूजून अतिशय भव्य शामियाना बनवला होता. निःशस्त्र भेटायचे ठरले असले तरी खानाने आपल्या अंगरख्याखाली बिचवा लपवला होता व खानाकडून घातपाताची शक्यता शिवाजींनी १०० टक्के धरली होती त्यामुळे त्यांनी अंगरख्या खाली चिलखत चढवले होते व लपवण्यास अतिशय सोपी वाघनखे हातामध्ये लपवली होती. भेटीच्या सुरुवातीसच खानाने शिवाजींना अलिंगन देण्यास बोलवले व उंच अफजलखानाने शिवाजींना आपल्या काखेत दाबून बिचव्याचा वार केला. परंतु चिलखत असल्याने शिवाजी महाराज बचावले. खानाने दगा केलेला पाहून शिवाजींनी लपवलेली वाघनखे काढली व खानाच्या पोटात घुसवून त्याची आतडी बाहेर काढली. अनपेक्षित प्रतिवाराने भेदरलेल्या खानाने दगा दगा असा आक्रोश केला व इतर अंगरक्षकांना सावध केले. इतर अंगरक्षकांच्यात तिथेच जुंपली. सय्यद बंडाने शिवाजींवर वार केला परंतु तो जिवा महालाने आपल्यावर घेतला व शिवाजींचा रस्ता मोकळा केला. वाटेत शिवाजींना खानाचा वकील कृष्णा भास्कर कुलकर्णी यांने अडवले व वार केला परंतु शिवाजींनी त्याला ठार मारले. इकडे खान त्याच्या पालखीत स्वार झाला परंतु संभाजी कावजीने प्रथम पालखी वाहणार्‍या भोईंचे पाय तोडले व जखमी अफजलखानाला मारून त्याचे शीर धडापासून अलग केले. शिवाजींनी हे शीर नंतर आपल्या मातोश्रींना भेटीदाखल पाठवले. शिवाजींनी झपाट्याने किल्यावर प्रयाण केले व तोफांनी आपल्या सैन्याला अफजलखानाच्या सैन्यावर आक्रमण करायचे आदेश दिले.

लढाई

मराठे सैनिकांच्या तुकड्या प्रतापगडाच्या जंगलात दबा धरून बसल्या होत्या. तोफा धडाडताच त्यांनी अफजलखानाच्या सैन्यावर झपाट्याने काही कळायच्या आत आक्रमण केले. कान्होजी जेधे याने बंदूकधार्‍यांवर आक्रमण केले. दुसर्‍या एका कमानीच्या हल्यात मुसाखान जखमी झाला व पळून गेला. अफजलखानाच्य सैन्याची वाताहत झाली. नेताजी पालकर यांच्या नेतृत्वाखाली मराठा घोडदळाने अफजलखानाच्या वाईच्या तळावर अचानकपणे हल्ला चढवला व तेथेही त्यांची वाताहत केली.

लढाईनंतर

आदिलशाही सेनेसाठी हा जबरदस्त पराभव होता. अफजलखानाचा वध ही संपूर्ण आदिलशाहीसाठी मोठी घटना होती. जवळपास ५,००० सैनिक मारले गेले व तितकेच जखमी झाले. जवळपास ३,००० सैनिक युद्धबंदी बनवण्यात आले. मराठ्यांचे पण त्यांच्या सैनिकक्षमतेच्या दृष्टीने थोडेफार नुकसान झाले. शिवाजींनी विरोधी सैन्यातील बंदीवानांना योग्य तो मान दिला. जखमींची योग्य ती शुश्रुषा केली गेली. कोणत्याही बंदीवान स्त्री अथवा पुरुषांवर अत्याचार झाले नाहीत. बऱ्याच जणांना परत विजापूरला पाठवण्यात आले.
पुढील १५ दिवसात शिवाजी महाराजांनी सातारा, कोल्हापूर व कोकणात किल्ले काबीज करायचा धडाका लावला व त्यात त्यांना नेत्रदीपक यश मिळाले. कोल्हापूर जवळील पन्हाळा किल्यापर्यंत त्यांनी मजल मारली. या घटनेनंतर शिवाजी महाराजांची एक कुशल नेता म्हणून ओळख प्राप्त झाली. अफजलखानासारख्या बलाढ्य सेनापतीचा पार धुव्वा उडवल्यामुळे शिवाजींचा भारतभर लष्करी दरारा वाढला.

साहित्यात व चित्रपटात

शिवाजींच्या जीवनावर आधारीत प्रत्येक चित्रपटात ही लढाई खासकरून शिवाजींचे अफजलखानाबरोबरचे द्वंद्व दाखवतातच. लेखक रणजित देसाई यांची लक्ष्यवेध ही या लढाईवर आधारित कादंबरी प्रसिद्ध आहे.

 

Battle of Pratapgarh

The Battle of Pratapgad was a land battle fought on November 10, 1659 at the fort of Pratapgad near the town of Satara, Maharashtra, India between the forces of the Maratha king Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj and the Adilshahi general Afzal Khan. The Marathas defeated the Adilshahi forces despite being outnumbered. It was their first significant military victory against a major regional power, and led to the eventual establishment of the Maratha Empire.

Background

King Shivaji held a commendable position in parts of Maval. The Adilshahi court wanted to curb his activities. Afzal Khan, a renowned general of Bijapur who had previously killed Shivaji's brother in a battle, was selected to lead an assault against Shivaji. He started from Bijapur in January 1653.

Battle

After starting from Bijapur, Afzal Khan began by destroying the temple of Bhavani at Tuljapur. He moved on to the Vittal temple at Pandharpur. He was trying to entice Shivaji out of the mountainous areas he occupied and onto the plains, where Khan's larger army trained and equipped for warfare on plain grounds would have an absolute advantage. Shivaji had encamped at Pratapgad, which, being located in a hilly area, was strategically advantageous for mountainous guerrilla warfare.
Unable to incite him to attack first, Afzal Khan moved his army to Pratapgad. As he had once been the subedar of Wai, he had experience with the geography of the region. He tried to bolster his position by obtaining the support of the militarily independent landlords of the region. Although they nominally acknowledged the sovereignty of the Adilshah, the powerful baron Kanhoji Jedhe, as directed by Shahaji, helped Shivaji to counter these moves and garner their support.

Composition of Adilshahi forces

Afzal Khan was assisted by the chieftains Sayyad Banda, Fazal Khan, Ambarkhan, Yakutkhan, Siddi Hilal, Musekhan, Pilaji Mohite, Prataprao More and many more commanders of note. His forces consisted of 20,000 select Adilshahi cavalry, 15,000 infantry, 10,000 Afzal Khan personnel Cavalry, 5,000 Afzal Khan personnel infantry and 1,500 musketeers. He was accompanied by 85 elephants and 1,200 camels. His artillery consisted of 80-90 cannons. Siddi of Janjira was approaching from the Konkan coast.

Composition of Maratha forces

Shivaji was assisted by Kanhoji Jedhe along with other Deshmukhs of Maval region namely Maral, Ramoji Dhamale, Krishnaji Pawar, Silimkar and Bandal. His cavalry was commanded by Netaji Palkar, and were placed in a forward position near the fort. Moropant Pingle was in command of 3,000 chosen infantry men, who were positioned in a densely forested area. Sambhaji Kavaji Kondhalkar, Yesaji Kank, Jiva Mahala and many other skilled military leaders were in charge of them. Kanhoji Jedhe assisted Shivaji directly along with other commanders. In the meantime, Shahaji was ready in Bangalore with his army of 17,000 for a final Battle in case Shivaji and his forces were routed by Khan. He had warned Badi Begum of Adilshah that, if Afzal Khan and his Adilshahi forces killed Shivaji by deceit, then there wouldn't remain even a brick of the Adilshahi kingdom. These forces were being carefully watched by the Adilshah.

Combat of Shivaji and Afzal Khan

Shivaji sent an emissary to Afzal Khan, stating that he did not want to fight and was ready for peace. A meeting was arranged between Shivaji and Afzal Khan at a shamiyana (highly decorated tent) at the foothills of Pratapgad. It was agreed that the two would meet unarmed, but would bring ten personal bodyguards each. Nine of these guards would remain 'one arrow-shot' away from the pair, while a single bodyguard would wait outside the tent. Shivaji chose Sambhaji Kondhalkar, Jiva Mahala, Siddi Ibrahim, Kataji Ingle, Kondaji Kank, Yesaji Kank, Krishnaji Gayakwad, Surji Katake, Visaji Murambak & Sambhaji Karvar for the meet. Nevertheless, both were prepared for treachery: Afzal Khan hid a katyar (a small dagger) in his coat, and Shivaji wore armour underneath his clothes and carried a concealed wagh nakha in one hand.
As the two men entered the tent, the 7' tall Khan embraced Shivaji. Then treacherous Khan swiftly drew his hidden dagger and stabbed Shivaji in the back. The dagger was deflected by Shivaji's armour. The Persian language chronicle by Khafi Khan attributes the treachery to Shivaji instead. Shivaji responded by disemboweling the Khan with a single stroke of his wagh nakhi. Khan rushed outside shouting for help, and was defended by Krishanaji Bhaskar Kulkarni, his emissary, who was himself then killed by Shivaji. Kulkarni managed to injure Shivaji. Thereupon Afzal Khan's bodyguard Sayyed Banda attacked Shivaji with swords but Jiva Mahala, Shivaji's personal bodyguard fatally struck him down, cutting off one of Sayyed Banda's hands with a Dandpatta (Pata- a medieval weapon). (This event is remembered in a Marathi idiom: Hota Jiva Mhanun Vachala Shiva - 'Because there was Jiva, Shiva survived'). Afzal Khan managed to hold his gushing entrails and hurtled, faint and bleeding, outside the tent and threw himself into his palanquin. The bearers hastily lifted their charge and began moving rapidly away down the slope. Sambhaji Kavji Kondhalkar, Shivaji's lieutenant and one of the accompanying guards, gave chase and beheaded Afzal Khan. The severed head was later sent to Rajgad to be shown to Shivaji's mother, Jijabai. She had long wanted vengeance for the deliberate maltreatment of Shahaji (Shivaji's father) while a captive of Afzal Khan, and for his role in the death of her elder son, Sambhaji. Shivaji sped up the slope towards the fortress and his lieutenants ordered cannons to be fired. It was a signal to his infantry, hidden in the densely forested valley, to raid the Adilshahi forces.

Hand-to-hand combat of the forces

Maratha troops commanded by Shivaji's captain Kanhoji Jedhe, swept down on Afzal Khan's 1,500 musketeers; resulting in a complete rout of the musketeers at the foothills of the fort. Then in a rapid march, a section of Adilshahi forces commanded by Musekhan was attacked. Musekhan, Afzal Khan's lieutenant, was wounded and subsequently fled the field.
Meanwhile, Moropant led the Maratha infantry toward the left flank of Adilshahi troops. The suddenness of this attack on Afzal Khan's artillery at close quarters made them ineffective in providing artillery cover for the main portion of their troops. And as a result of this the rest of their troops rapidly succumbed to an all out Maratha attack. Simultaneously Shivaji's Sardar (captain), Ragho Atre's cavalry units swooped down and attacked the large but unprepared Adilshahi cavalry before they were able to be fully geared up for battle and succeeded in completely routing them in short order.
The Maratha cavalry under Netaji Palkar pursued the retreating Adilshahi forces, who were attempting to join up with the part of their reserve forces stationed in the nearby village of Wai. They were engaged in battle before they could regroup and were defeated prior to reaching Wai. The Adilshahi forces not withstanding the onslaught of the Marathas started retreating towards Bijapur. The Maratha army chased the retreating army and on their way captured 23 Adilshahi forts. In fact, the Adilshahi Killedar of the Kolhapur fort himself handed over the keys to the Marathas.

Aftermath

Adilshahi forces lost their artillery, 65 elephants, 4000 horses, 1200 camels, jewels worth 300,000 Rupees, 1,000,000 Rupees, heaps of precious cloths, tents to the Marathas. They also lost their money and grain stored at Wai.
5,000 Adilshahi soldiers were killed and almost as many were wounded. 3,000 soldiers were imprisoned, and the remainder were allowed to go home in defeat. The Marathas lost 1,734 soldiers, while 420 soldiers were wounded.
As it was policy of Shivaji to humanely treat the defeated army, neither the men nor women were sold as slaves or molested. Wounded commanders were offered treatment deserving of their rank and either imprisoned or sent back to Bijapur. Some of the defeated Adilshahi generals like Siddi Hilal changed their loyalties and joined the Marathas to serve under Shivaji. Two of Afzal Khan’s sons were captured by the Marathas but were let off by the Shivaji. Fazal khan (son of Afzal Khan) and the Adilshahi soldiers with him who were badly injured were shown a safe passage out of the forest of Jawli by Prataprao More. Shivaji also buried Afzal Khan as per Islamic customs and build his tomb near Pratapgarh, as per his philosophy of ‘once the enemy is dead, the enmity is dead too’.
The sword of honour was presented to Kanhoji Jedhe for his invaluable and outstanding performance of service to Shivaji. The relatives of the killed soldiers were offered service in the Maratha army. Families without any male left alive to support the family were awarded pensions. Heroes of the war were rewarded with medals, kada (bracelets) and horses.
Khan's death dealt the Adilshah's rule a severe blow. A quarter of his territory, forts and a fifth of his army were captured or destroyed, while Shivaji doubled his territory, losing a tenth of his army, within fifteen days of the Battle of Pratapgadh.Shivaji maintained his momentum, sending cavalry towards Kolhapur, which succeeded in capturing seventeen forts, including the prestigious fort of Panhala. Cavalry was also sent towards Dabhol and Rajapur under the command of Doroji Patil, which was also successful in capturing forts in the southern Konkan.
This remarkable victory made Shivaji a hero of Maratha folklore and a legendary figure among his people. Having established military dominance and successfully beaten back a major attack by a powerful empire, Shivaji had founded the nucleus of what would become the Maratha Empire.

Egyptian Pyramid Facts

Learn about the first pyramid built in Egypt, the Great Pyramid of Giza, important burial sites such as Saqqara, what Egyptians put in burial tombs, where the famous mask of Tutankhamun was discovered and much more. Read on and have fun learning about Ancient Egyptian pyramids.

• Ancient Egyptian pyramids are the most well known pyramid structures.
• Most Ancient Egyptian pyramids were built as tombs for Pharaohs and their families.
• Over 130 pyramids have been discovered in Egypt.
• The first Egyptian pyramid is believed to be the Pyramid of Djoser, it was built in Saqqara around 4650 years ago (2640 BC).
• Saqqara is a huge ancient burial ground built near the Egyptian city of Memphis.
• The Great Pyramid of Giza is the oldest and largest of three pyramids in the Giza Necropolis.
• Also known as the Pyramid of Khufu, it is the oldest of the Ancient Wonders of the World and the last one still largely intact.
• For over 3800 years, the Great Pyramid of Giza was the tallest man made structure in the world.
• Although it has lost around 10 metres (33 feet) in height, it still stands around 146 metres (480 feet) above the ground.
• As well as Giza and Saqqara, important Egyptian Pyramid sites include Dashur, Abusir, Meidum, Lisht, Abu Rawash and others.
• Nearly all Egyptian Pyramids are located on the west bank of the Nile.
• Egyptian Pyramids often contain multiple chambers and passages.
• Bodies placed in the tombs were preserved by mummification.
• Egyptians buried their dead with burial goods that ranged from everyday items they believed would useful in the afterlife to more expensive items such as jewelry.
•  Tomb robbers targeted many of the royal tombs and most were eventually robbed.
• One tomb that was left largely intact was that of Tutankhamun in the Valley of the Kings. Rediscovered in 1922 by Howard Carter, this famous tomb is best known for the solid gold funerary mask of Tutankhamun.
• Tutankhamun was a pharaoh from 1332 BC to 1323 BC.
• Check out some more pyramid facts.

Basic Facts about Snow Leopard

The snow leopard, known for its beautiful, thick fur, has a white, yellowish or soft gray coat with ringed spots of black on brown. The markings help camouflage it from prey. With their thick coats, heavy fur-lined tails and paws covered with fur, snow leopards are perfectly adapted to the cold and dry habitats in which they live.

Diet

Snow leopards primarily hunt wild sheep and goats. Snow leopards are also known to eat smaller animals like rodents, hares and game birds.

Population

Did You Know?

Snow leopards have very large paws that act as snowshoes and keep them from sinking into the snow. Their paws are also completely fur-covered, protecting them from the cold.

Very rare in most of their range, an estimated 3,500 to 7,000 snow leopards are left in the wild, with 600 - 700 in zoos around the world. Exact numbers in the wild have not been determined due to the snow leopard’s shy nature.

Range

Snow leopards are found at altitudes between 9,800 and 17,000 feet in the high, rugged mountains of Central Asia. Their range spans from Afghanistan to Kazakstan and Russia in the north to India and China in the east. China contains about 60% of snow leopard habitat. They have already disappeared from certain parts of Mongolia, which is part of their historic range. 

Behavior

Snow leopards prefer to inhabit steep cliff areas, rocky outcrops and ravines. Such habitats provide them with the camouflage they need to ambush unsuspecting prey. They stalk their prey and usually spring from a distance of 20 - 50 feet. Their long and powerful hind limbs help snow leopards leap up to 30 feet, which is six times their body length.

Did You Know?

Snow leopards have light green or gray eyes, unusual for big cats, who usually have yellow or gold eyes.

Mostly active at dawn and dusk, snow leopards are rarely seen in the wild. Unlike other big cats, snow leopards are unable to roar. Solitary in nature, they pair only during the breeding season.

Reproduction

Mating Season: Between January and mid-March.
Gestation: period 3-3 ½ months.
Litter size: 2-3 cubs.

Females give birth in rocky dens lined with their fur. The young follow their mother on hunts at three months and remain with her through their first winter.

FAST FACTS

Height: About 2 feet (.6m) at shoulders.
Length: 6-7.5 feet (1.8-2.3m) (includes 40-inch (1m) tail length).
Weight: 77-120 lbs (35-55 kg).
Female snow leopards are about 30% smaller than males.
Lifespan: Their reclusive nature makes it hard to determine snow leopard lifespan in the wild. They have, however, been known to live for as long as 21 years in captivity.

Views of the Solar System

Our Milkyway Galaxy 

This image of our galaxy, the Milky Way, was taken with NASA's Cosmic Background Explorer's (COBE) Diffuse Infrared Background Experiment (DIRBE). This never-before-seen view shows the Milky Way from an edge-on perspective with the galactic north pole at the top, the south pole at the bottom and the galactic center at the center. The picture combines images obtained at several near-infrared wavelengths. Stars within our galaxy are the dominant source of light at these wavelengths. Even though our solar system is part of the Milky Way, the view looks distant because most of the light comes from the population of stars that are closer to the galactic center than our own Sun. (Courtesy NASA) 

Our Milky Way Gets a Makeover
Like early explorers mapping the continents of our globe, astronomers are busy charting the spiral structure of our galaxy, the Milky Way. Using infrared images from NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope, scientists have discovered that the Milky Way's elegant spiral structure is dominated by just two arms wrapping off the ends of a central bar of stars. Previously, our galaxy was thought to possess four major arms.

This artist's concept illustrates the new view of the Milky Way, along with other findings presented at the 212th American Astronomical Society meeting in St. Louis, Mo. The galaxy's two major arms (Scutum-Centaurus and Perseus) can be seen attached to the ends of a thick central bar, while the two now-demoted minor arms (Norma and Sagittarius) are less distinct and located between the major arms. The major arms consist of the highest densities of both young and old stars; the minor arms are primarily filled with gas and pockets of star-forming activity.

The artist's concept also includes a new spiral arm, called the "Far-3 kiloparsec arm," discovered via a radio-telescope survey of gas in the Milky Way. This arm is shorter than the two major arms and lies along the bar of the galaxy.

Our sun lies near a small, partial arm called the Orion Arm, or Orion Spur, located between the Sagittarius and Perseus arms. (Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech) 

Spiral Galaxy, NGC 4414
The majestic galaxy, NGC 4414, is located 60 million light-years away. Like the Milky Way, NGC 4414 is a giant spiral-shaped disk of stars, with a bulbous central hub of older yellow and red stars. The outer spiral arms are considerably bluer due to ongoing formation of young, blue stars, the brightest of which can be seen individually at the high resolution provided by the Hubble camera. The arms are also very rich in clouds of interstellar dust, seen as dark patches and streaks silhouetted against the starlight. (Courtesy NASA/STSCI) 

Obliquity of the Eight Planets
This illustration shows the obliquity of the eight planets. Obliquity is the angle between a planet's equatorial plane and its orbital plane. By International Astronomical Union (IAU) convention, a planet's north pole lies above the ecliptic plane. By this convention, Venus, Uranus, and Pluto have a retrograde rotation, or a rotation that is in the opposite direction from the other planets. (Copyright 2008 by Calvin J. Hamilton) 

The Solar System
During the past three decades a myriad of space explorers have escaped the confines of planet Earth and have set out to discover our planetary neighbors. This picture shows the Sun and all nine planets of the solar system as seen by the space explorers. Starting at the top-left corner is the Sun followed by the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. (Copyright 1998 by Calvin J. Hamilton) 

Sun and Planets
This image shows the Sun and nine planets approximately to scale. The order of these bodies are: Sun,Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. (Copyright Calvin J. Hamilton) 

Jovian Planets
This image shows the Jovian planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune approximately to scale. The Jovian planets are named because of their gigantic Jupiter-like appearance. (Copyright Calvin J. Hamilton) 

The Largest Moons and Smallest Planets
This image shows the relative sizes of the largest moons and the smallest planets in the solarsystem. The largest satellites pictured in this image are: Ganymede (5262 km), Titan (5150 km), Callisto (4806 km), Io (3642 km), the Moon (3476 km),Europa (3138 km), Triton (2706 km), and Titania (1580 km). Both Ganymede and Titan are larger than planet Mercuryfollowed by Io, the Moon, Europa, and Triton which are larger than  the planet Pluto. (Copyright Calvin J. Hamilton) 

Diagram of Portrait Frames
On February 14, 1990, the cameras of Voyager 1 pointed back toward the Sun and took a series of pictures of the Sun and the planets, making the first ever "portrait" of our solar system as seen from the outside. This image is a diagram of how the frames for the solar system portrait were taken. (Courtesy NASA/JPL) 

All Frames from the Family Portrait
This image shows the series of pictures of the Sun and the planets taken on February 14, 1990, for the solar system family portrait as seen from the outside. In the course of taking this mosaic consisting of a total of 60 frames, Voyager 1 made several images of the inner solar system from a distance of approximately 6.4 billion kilometers (4 billion miles) and about 32° above the ecliptic plane. Thirty-nine wide angle frames link together six of the planets of our solar system in this mosaic. Outermost Neptune is 30 times further from the Sun than Earth. Our Sun is seen as the bright object in the center of the circle of frames. The insets show the planets magnified many times. (Courtesy NASA/JPL) 

Portrait of the Solar System
These six narrow-angle color images were made from the first ever "portrait" of the solar system taken by Voyager 1, which was more than 6.4 billion kilometers (4 billion miles) from Earth and about 32° above the ecliptic. Mercury is too close to the Sun to be seen. Mars was not detectable by the Voyager cameras due to scattered sunlight in the optics, and Pluto was not included in the mosaic because of its small size and distance from the Sun. These blown-up images, left to right and top to bottom are Venus, Earth, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. (Courtesy NASA/JPL)

Solar System - A brief Stud

Our solar system consists of an average star we call the Sun, the planetsMercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, andPluto. It includes: the satellites of the planets; numerous comets,asteroids, and meteoroids; and the interplanetary medium. The Sun is the richest source of electromagnetic energy (mostly in the form of heat and light) in the solar system. The Sun's nearest known stellar neighbor is a red dwarf star called Proxima Centauri, at a distance of 4.3 light years away. The whole solar system, together with the local stars visible on a clear night, orbits the center of our home galaxy, a spiral disk of 200 billion stars we call the Milky Way. The Milky Way has two small galaxies orbiting it nearby, which are visible from the southern hemisphere. They are called the Large Magellanic Cloud and the Small Magellanic Cloud. The nearest large galaxy is the Andromeda Galaxy. It is a spiral galaxy like the Milky Way but is 4 times as massive and is 2 million light years away. Our galaxy, one of billions of galaxies known, is traveling through intergalactic space.

The planets, most of the satellites of the planets and the asteroids revolve around the Sun in the same direction, in nearly circular orbits. When looking down from above the Sun's north pole, the planets orbit in a counter-clockwise direction. The planets orbit the Sun in or near the same plane, called the ecliptic. Pluto is a special case in that its orbit is the most highly inclined (18 degrees) and the most highly elliptical of all the planets. Because of this, for part of its orbit, Pluto is closer to the Sun than is Neptune. The axis of rotation for most of the planets is nearly perpendicular to the ecliptic. The exceptions areUranus and Pluto, which are tipped on their sides.

Composition Of The Solar System

The Sun contains 99.85% of all the matter in the Solar System. The planets, which condensed out of the same disk of material that formed the Sun, contain only 0.135% of the mass of the solar system. Jupiter contains more than twice the matter of all the other planets combined. Satellites of the planets, comets, asteroids, meteoroids, and the interplanetary medium constitute the remaining 0.015%. The following table is a list of the mass distribution within our Solar System.

• Sun: 99.85%
• Planets: 0.135%
• Comets: 0.01% ?
• Satellites: 0.00005%
• Minor Planets: 0.0000002% ?
• Meteoroids: 0.0000001% ?
• Interplanetary Medium: 0.0000001% ?

Interplanetary Space

Nearly all the solar system by volume appears to be an empty void. Far from being nothingness, this vacuum of "space" comprises the interplanetary medium. It includes various forms of energy and at least two material components: interplanetary dust and interplanetary gas. Interplanetary dust consists of microscopic solid particles. Interplanetary gas is a tenuous flow of gas and charged particles, mostly protons and electrons -- plasma -- which stream from the Sun, called the solar wind.

The solar wind can be measured by spacecraft, and it has a large effect on comet tails. It also has a measurable effect on the motion of spacecraft. The speed of the solar wind is about 400 kilometers (250 miles) per second in the vicinity of Earth's orbit. The point at which the solar wind meets the interstellar medium, which is the "solar" wind from other stars, is called the heliopause. It is a boundary theorized to be roughly circular or teardrop-shaped, marking the edge of the Sun's influence perhaps 100 AU from the Sun. The space within the boundary of the heliopause, containing the Sun and solar system, is referred to as the heliosphere.

The solar magnetic field extends outward into interplanetary space; it can be measured on Earth and by spacecraft. The solar magnetic field is the dominating magnetic field throughout the interplanetary regions of the solar system, except in the immediate environment of planets which have their own magnetic fields.

 The Terrestrial Planets

The terrestrial planets are the four innermost planets in the solar system, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. They are called terrestrial because they have a compact, rocky surface like the Earth's. The planets, Venus, Earth, and Mars have significant atmospheres while Mercury has almost none. The following diagram shows the approximate distance of the terrestrial planets to the Sun.

 The Jovian Planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are known as the Jovian (Jupiter-like) planets, because they are all gigantic compared with Earth, and they have a gaseous nature like Jupiter's. The Jovian planets are also referred to as the gas giants, although some or all of them might have small solid cores. The following diagram shows the approximate distance of the Jovian planets to the Sun.

Barchan

A barchan or barkhan dune, (from Russian бархан [bɐrˈ.xan], from Kazakh бархан [bɑɾˈ.χɑn]), is a crescent-shaped dune. The term was introduced in 1881 by Russian naturalist Alexander von Middendorf, for crescent-shaped sand dunes in Turkestan and other inland desert regions. Barchans face the wind, appearing convex and are produced by wind action predominately from one direction. They are a very common landform in sandy deserts all over the world and are arc-shaped, markedly asymmetrical in cross section, with a gentle slope facing toward the wind sand ridge, comprising well-sorted sand. This type of dune possesses two "horns" that face downwind, with the steeper slope known as the slip face, facing away from the wind, downwind, at the angle of repose of sand, approximately 30–35 degrees for medium-fine dry sand. The upwind side is packed by the wind, and stands at about 15 degrees. Barchans may be 9–30 m (30–98 ft) high and 370 m (1,210 ft) wide at the base measured perpendicular to the wind.

Simple barchan dunes may appear as larger, compound barchan or megabarchan dunes, which can gradually migrate with the wind as a result of erosion on the windward side and deposition on the leeward side, at a rate of migration ranging from about a metre to a hundred metres per year. Barchans usually occur as groups of isolated dunes and may form chains that extend across a plain in the direction of the prevailing wind. Barchans and megabarchans may coalesce into ridges that extend for hundreds of kilometers. Dune collisions and changes in wind direction that spawn new barchans from the horns of the old govern the size distribution in a given field.

As barchan dunes migrate, smaller dunes outpace larger dunes, catching-up the rear of the larger dune and eventually appear to punch through the large dune to appear on the other side. The process appears superficially similar to waves of light, sound, or water that pass directly through each other, but the detailed mechanism is very different. The dunes emulate soliton behavior, but unlike solitons, which flow through a medium leaving it undisturbed (think of waves through water), the sand particles themselves are moved. When the smaller dune catches up the larger dune, the winds begin to deposit sand on the rear dune while blowing sand off the front dune without replenishing it. Eventually, the rear dune has assumed dimensions similar to the former front dune which has now become a smaller, faster moving dune that pulls away with the wind.

Barchan dunes have been observed on Mars, where the thin atmosphere produces winds strong enough to move sand and dust.

Sand Dune

A dune is a mound of sand formed by the wind, usually along the beach or in a desert. Dunes form when wind blows sand into a sheltered area behind an obstacle. Dunes grow as grains of sand accumulate. 

Every dune has a windward side and a slipface. A dunes windward side is the side where the wind is blowing and pushing material up. A dunes slip face is simply the side without wind. A slipface is usually smoother than a dunes windward side.

A collection of dunes is called a dune belt or dune field. A large dune field is called an erg. The Skeleton Coast Erg in Namibia extends 2-5 kilometers (1-3 miles) in length and across a width of 20 kilometers (12.7 miles).

Dunes can also be formed by strong currents beneath the water. Underwater dunes, called subaqueous dunes, are common in the ocean, rivers, and canals.

Shapes of Dunes

Dunes can be very large geographic features or just small bumps. Most sand dunes are classified by shape. There are five major dune shapes: crescentic, linear, star, dome, and parabolic.

Crescentic dunes are shaped like crescents, or the shape of a wide letter C. The wide side of a crescentic dune is its windward side, with a small, semi-circular slipface on the other side. Crescentic dunes are the fastest-moving type of dune, and also the most common.

Linear dunes form straight or nearly straight lines. Some linear dunes are shaped like a wiggling snake, with regular curves. Linear dunes develop where wind pressures are nearly equal on both sides of a dune.

Star dunes have pointed ridges and slipfaces on at least three sides. Star dunes develop where winds come from many different directions. The sand dunes of the Sahara Desert ergs are star dunes.

Dome dunes are the rarest type of dune. They are circular and do not have a slipface. The wind can blow material onto the dune from any side.

Parabolic dunes are similar to crescentic dunes. Their shapes are roughly the same, but the slipface of a parabolic dune is on its inward side. Parabolic dunes are also called blowouts, because winds blow out the center of the dune, leaving just a rim on the outside.

Life In Sand Dunes

Few species can live in the shifting world of sand dunes. 

There is little soil in a sand dune, so plants usually cannot take root. Often, sand dunes are located next to oceans, so plants must be tolerant of a very salty atmosphere. Some grasses with shallow root systems, such as beachgrass, are common to sand dune ecosystems. 

Animals cannot take shelter in the unstable sand of a dune and must search for fresh water. Still, a few species thrive. In the Sahara Desert, sandfish live beneath the dunes. A sandfish is not fish at all, but a type of lizard that can retract its legs and swim through the smooth sand. 

Larger animals can find a way to live among sand dunes, too. Rig-e Jenn is a vast, desolate dune belt in Irans Dasht-e Kavir desert. Rig-e Jenn is home to rare species such as the yuz, or Asiatic cheetah, and onager, a relative of the horse.

महाभारत के चरित्र - भीम

• पांडु के पाँच में से दूसरे पुत्र का पुत्र का नाम भीम अथवा भीमसेन था।
• भीम में दस हज़ार हाथियों का बल था और वह गदा युद्ध में पारंगत था। दुर्योधन की ही तरह भीम ने भी गदा युद्ध की शिक्षा श्री कृष्ण के बड़े भाई बलराम से ली थी।
• महाभारत में भीम ने ही दुर्योधन और दुःशासन सहित गांधारी के सौ पुत्रों को मारा था। द्रौपदी के अलावा भीम की पत्नी का नाम हिडिंबा था जिससे भीम का परमवीर पुत्र घटोत्कच था।
• घटोत्कच ने ही इन्द्र द्वारा कर्ण को दी गई अमोघ शक्ति को अपने ऊपर चलवाकर अर्जुन के प्राणों की रक्षा की थी।
• भीम बलशाली होने के साथ-साथ बहुत अच्छा रसोइया भी था । विराट नगर में जब अज्ञातवास के समय जब द्रौपदी सैरंध्री बनकर रह रही थी, द्रौपदी के शील की रक्षा करते हुए उसने कीचक को भी मारा था।
• श्रीकृष्ण के परम शत्रु मगध नरेश जरासंध को भी भीम ने ही मारा था।

भीम का उल्लेख इन लेखों में भी है: कीचक, बल्लव, अश्वत्थामा हाथी, ओधवती नदी, धर्म कुण्ड काम्यवन, द्रौपदी चीरहरण, लाक्षागृह, जरासंध एवं भीमबेटका गुफ़ाएँ भोपाल

भीम के अपरिमित बल से त्रस्त तथा ईर्ष्यालु होकर दुर्योधन जलविहार के बहाने पांडवों को गंगा के तट पर ले गया। भोजन में कालकूट विष खिलाकर दुर्योधन ने भीमसेन को लताओं इत्यादि से बांधकर नदी में फेंक दिया। शेष पांडव थककर सो गये थे, अत: प्रात: भीम को वहाँ न देख समझे कि वह उनसे पहले ही घर वापस चला गया है। 
भीम जल में डूबकर नागलोक पहुंच गया। वहाँ नागों के दर्शन से उसका विष उतर गया और उसने नागों का नाश प्रारंभ कर दिया। घबराकर उन्होंने वासुकि से समस्त वृत्तांत कह सुनाया। वासुकि तथा नागराज आर्यक (भीम के नाना के नाना) ने भीम को पहचानकर गले से लगा लिया, साथ ही प्रसन्न होकर उसे उस कुण्ड का जल पीने का अवसर दिया जिसका पान करने से एक हज़ार हाथियों का बल प्राप्त होता है। भीम ने वैसे आठ कुण्डों का रसपान करके विश्राम किया। तदनंतर आठ दिवस बाद वह सकुशल घर पहुंचा। दुर्योधन ने पुन: उसे कालकूट विष का पान करवाया था किंतु भीम के पेट में वृक नामक अग्नि थी जिससे विष पच जाता था तथा उसका कोई प्रभाव नहीं होता था। इसी कारण वह वृकोदर कहलाता था। दुर्योधन ने एक बार भीम की शैया पर सांप भी छोड़ था। महाभारत के चौदहवें दिन की रात्रि में भी युद्ध होता रहा। उस रात पांडवों ने द्रोण पर आक्रमण किया था। युद्ध में भीम ने घूंसों तथा थप्पड़ों से ही कलिंग राजकुमार का, जयरात तथा धृतराष्ट्र-पुत्र दुष्कर्ण और दुर्मद का वध कर दिया। इसके अतिरिक्त भी बाह्लीक, दुर्योधन के दस भाइयों, शकुनी के पांच भाइयों तथा सात रथियों को भी उसने सहज ही मार डाला।[1]

युद्ध के भयंकर कांड का समापन योद्धाओं की मां,बहन, पत्नियों के रूदन तथा मृत वीरों की अंत्येष्टि क्रिया से हुआ। इसी निमित्त हस्तिनापुर पहुंचने पर धृतराष्ट्र को रोती हुई द्रौपदी, पांडव, सात्यकि तथा श्री कृष्ण भी मिले। यद्यपि व्यास तथा विदुर धृतराष्ट्र को पर्याप्त समझ चुके थे कि उनका पांडवों पर क्रोध अनावश्यक है। इस युद्ध के मूल में उनके प्रति अन्याय कृत्य ही था, अत: जनसंहार अवश्यभावी था तथापि युधिष्ठर को गले लगाने के उपरांत धृतराष्ट्र अत्यंत क्रोध में भीम से मिलने के लिए आतुर हो उठे। श्रीकृष्ण उनकी मनोगत भावना जान गये, अत: उन्होंने भीम को पीछे हटा, उनके स्थान पर लोहे की आदमक़द प्रतिमा धृतराष्ट्र के सम्मुख खड़ी कर दी। धृतराष्ट्र में दस हज़ार हाथियों का बल था। वे धर्म से विचलित हो भीम को मार डालना चाहते थे क्योंकि उसी ने अधिकांश कौरवों का हनन किया था। अत: लौह प्रतिमा को भीम समझकर उन्होंने उसे दोनों बांहों में लपेटकर पीस डाला। प्रतिमा टूट गयी किंतु इस प्रक्रिया में उनकी छाती पर चोट लगी तथा मुंह से ख़ून बहने लगा, फिर भीम को मरा जान उसे याद कर रोने भी लगे। सब अवाक देखते रह गये। श्रीकृष्ण भी क्रोध से लाल-पीले हो उठे। बोले-'जैसे यम के पास कोई जीवत नहीं रहता, वैसे ही आपकी बांहों में भी भीम भला कैसे जीवित रह सकता था! आपका उद्देश्य जानकर ही मैंने आपके बेटे की बनायी भीम की लौह-प्रतिमा आपके सम्मुख प्रस्तुत की थी। भीम के लिए विलाप मत कीजिये, वह जीवित है।' तदनंतर धृतराष्ट्र का क्रोध शांत हो गया तथा उन्होंने सब पांडवों को बारी-बारी से गले लगा लिया।